“In Noh, natural forces, natural surroundings, nature itself are everything- it is an animistic theatre, the theatre of pure Shinto.” (Richie 1965 ,71) This statement echoes what I have found to be true in my research and personal experience. There exists a wealth of evidence that supports Noh as not only having stemmed from Shinto, but also having pre-Shinto shamanistic roots. Unlike other forms of Japanese theatre, which either evolved from imported traditions from the mainland or were influenced by mainland religious or philosophical ideology, Noh can be traced back to ancient shaman rituals, making it the only form of purely Japanese, or native theatre.
The most indepth analysis of Noh's shamanistic roots is presented by Benito Ortolani who shows that Noh developed out of earlier theatrical traditions including sangaku (miscellaneous entertainment), sarugaku (literally “monkey” -or imitation- entertainment), dengaku (field entertainment) and kagura, or god entertainment. (Ortolani 1984 ,167) Of these, dengaku and kagura not only have the clearest links to pre-Shinto shamanism and Shinto but they also have had the greatest influence on the development of Noh.
The “field” aspect of dengaku goes beyond the literal location of performance, which was traditionally a rice field near a shrine; it also hints at the liminal “field” of space/time in which Noh is performed and which I will explore later. It is a sacred space where female performers, chosen by the villagers, ritually devoted the coming year's harvest, as well as the prayers and wishes of the villagers to the kami, or divine being (Mori 2002 , 78). In dengaku there exists “...both a view of divinity as absolute and a shamanistic worship of the awesome power of nature as spiritual,”. (Komparu 1983, 4) This idea of transcended space/time, while important to dengaku, plays an even greater role in kagura.
Kagura, traditionally performed by Shinto clergy, in its most ancient and primitive state grew out of shamanistic trance performances by female miko practitioners (Ortolani 1984 , 173-174). The shamanness would offer sacred dances to the kami as prayers (Wakita 1999 , 92), similar to the way female performers of dengaku did. In both traditions, it is a female who has a divine connection to communicate with the gods. Another Shinto aspect of kagura is the himorogi, or consecrated space (Komparu 1983 ,6) in which it is enacted, delineated by a shimenawa- a sacred rope which is considered to be a holographic entry point. (Kasulis 2004, 18) By using this term, I mean it possesses the ability to connect the specific (the rope) to the holistic (sacred space), as well as sacred to the mundane: “a phenomenon through which we become aware that the whole is reflected in every part.” (21)
Of all the roles in Noh theatre, none is as transcendent or sacred as okina. The ritual aspects of okina performance stem from the sanctity of the performance which literally embodies the divine. Performed only on special occasions such as New Year's Day or to commemorate an auspicious event such as the opening of a new stage or the emperor's birthday, (Rath 2000, 254) the process involved in performing okina corresponds to the stages of Shinto ritual (Komparu 1983, 4). Unlike other Noh performances, the actor will mask himself on stage, symbolic of the god's descent, and now become-god, delivers kamigaku, the divine performance. (Vollmann 2010, 40; Komparu 1983, 4)
Lengthy and complicated ceremonial rites are associated with the role of okina. A period of ritual purification precedes the actual performance for all members involved; this consists of sexual abstinence, as well as maintaining bekka (a separate fire), which involves eating food prepared in a manner that avoids contact with or cross-contamination from the rest of the troupe. (Rath 2000, 255; Komparu 1983, 4) In its most strict iteration, the preparation begins twenty-one days prior to the staging, with no consumption of meat and avoidance of food prepared by women or with bathwater used by them; however, in modern okina the rites are usually observed for only one day. (Rath 2000, 255; Vollmann 2010, 41)
On the day of performance, a small alter, an okina-kazari, is erected in the backstage mirror-room where the actors prepare. Placed upon the alter are the okina mask, ritual implements such as bells, as well as offerings of consecrated sake, rice, and salt. After each performer partakes, a fire ritual utilizing sparks made by steel and flint, repurifies the members involved in the okina. Finally, the actor incarnating the god, utters the okina-watashi (literally “I-god”) incantation, and passing through the curtain that separates the backstage world from the liminal space of the Noh stage, enters the performance space. (Komparu 1983, 4)
This ancient ritual consists of many symbolic elements sacred to Shinto, where “...the part reflects the whole, the whole is in every part.” (Kasulis 2004, 23) These holographic entry points are: the mirrors of the mirror-room, reflecting the sacred within the individual; the rice and sake, traditional offerings to kami; the salt, for its association with the sea, life and purification; and the fire ritual, a means of purification, which in Shinto rites must be made using a flint, thus releasing it from nature rather than it being man-made. (40, 48-54) The culmination of this act of worship takes place upon the Noh stage, “a place of complete openness where a shared experience occurs,”(Komparu 1983, 11) the setting upon which the audience witnesses the manifestation of okina.
The best description I found of this experience was related to William T. Vollmann by the late Noh actor Hideo Kanze: “'The box [containing the okina mask] is brought to you and you take out the mask. From there, it starts. From the beginning, you say words of prayer without the mask, and then a child or young actor dances, wishing for a good harvest, and when he's doing that you put on the mask and then the god comes into you and then Okina dances'.” (2010, 41, emphasis mine)
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